Intimate Partner Violence among Older Adolescents and Young Adults

What norms contribute to this behavior?

Social norms are the perceived, informal rules that define acceptable, appropriate, and obligatory actions within a given group or community. Some social norms are specific to a particular context, while others may be broad enough to span multiple contexts; even seemingly contradictory norms may exist in same context.¹

The following examples represent social norms relevant to intimate partner violence for older adolescents (ages 15-18) and young adults (ages 19-25) that emerged from the literature. They are not meant to be a comprehensive list of all relevant social norms; some norms may only be relevant in particular contexts. 

• Masculine and patriarchal norms contribute to the belief that men are superior to women and are expected to be dominant within a relationship. These norms support the belief that men have the right to be abusive.^2–9 Wives are expected to obey their husbands, including fulfilling sexual desires and desires for male children.^2–4,7–11
  Meta-Norms: Authority; Control and Violence; Gender Ideology; Protection

• Gender roles can contribute to sexual violence when men are expected to be dominant and aggressive in taking initiative in sexual matters, and when masculinity is tied to frequent sexual desire and activity.^3,8,9,11 Women are expected to be bashful and submissive; when women express sexual desire, they may be negatively considered promiscuous.^3,4,7 Women may comply with unwanted sexual activity with their husbands to prevent accusations of her infidelity or to prevent his infidelity.^8,9
  Meta-Norms: Authority; Control and Violence; Gender Ideology;

• Rooted in norms that women should be submissive and men should maintain order in their home, women who experience violence are often blamed for inciting the violence she endures. Such justifications for abusing women include her perceived inability to communicate effectively or inappropriate behavior, such as going out at night.^2–4,6,7 Men are also expected to take responsibility within their marriages for their wives, including punishing her for inappropriate behavior or defying gender norms.^2,4,6–9,12
  Meta-Norms: Authority; Control and Violence; Gender Ideology; Protection

• Some religious norms can uphold intimate partner violence,² others can also be protective for girls/young women.^4,13
  Meta-Norms: Authority; Control and Violence; Gender Ideology

• Norms around infidelity and control are associated with intimate partner violence. These norms excuse infidelity in men and punish it in women. Jealousy, fear of infidelity, and the potential social stigma resulting from suspected or actual infidelity may drive intimate partner violence.^2,7–9,14
  Meta-Norms: Control and Violence; Gender Ideology; Social Status

• Community norms that uphold bride price or dowry, may support the belief that the exchange of assets gives husbands absolute authority over their wives, including the use of intimate partner violence.^3,15
  Meta-Norms: Authority; Control and Violence; Gender Ideology

• Discussing family matters, such as experiencing IPV, outside of the home is considered inappropriate and a disgrace to the family’s honor and the woman’s reputation.^2,3,16
  Meta-Norms: Control and Violence; Gender Ideology; Privacy

• Societal pressure against divorce can compel women to stay in an abusive relationship.^2,12 Women are expected to endure violence in order to keep their family together and avoid divorce,¹⁰ which carries heavy stigma for women who may never remarry or regain social status.¹⁷ Support to women experiencing IPV is limited, because families worry excessive intervention could result in divorce.² 
  Meta-Norms: Authority; Control and Violence; Gender Ideology; Privacy; Protection

What other factors affect this behavior?

Violence in intimate relationships – both experiencing and perpetrating – often starts early in partnerships and is influenced by social norms along with other factors. These factors may include income, experiencing violence in childhood, and the presence of dowry or bride price in a community (both payment and non-payment may be associated with violence). Some examples are listed below:

Individual

• Socio-economic status^1–8
• Employment status^1,2,4,6,9,10
• Alcohol consumption for boys and men^2,3,5,10,11
• Age when married^5,12–14

Interpersonal

• Financial hardship for young couples^{1,2,6,8,10,12,15}
• Age discrepancies within couples^1,2,4
• Witnessing violence in childhood^{3,7,10,12,13,16}
• Educational attainment for girls and women^{3,4,7,10,12,16,17}

Community/Environmental

• Religion^1,4
• Bride price or dowries^5,10,11,18
• Community attitudes towards acceptance and justification of violence^1–4,13,14
• Geographic Area (urban and rural)^{3,4,12–14,19}

Who influences this behavior?

Intimate partner violence and the norms that underpin it are often deeply embedded in communities, though some groups may have more influence on the occurrence, prevention or response to violent behaviors. These reference groups include: 

• Parents, in-laws, and extended families^1–3
• Women and men who upheld traditional gender norms and family structures^1,4–7
• Religious Leaders¹
• Communities^8–10

Selected interventions addressing norms and behaviors?

• The Male Norms Initiative intervention was implemented by Hiwot Ethiopia and EngenderHealth to promote gender-equitable norms among boys and men aged 15-24 and reduce intimate partner violence in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The intervention included two main components; group discussions and community mobilization and engagement.  The first was a series of interactive group education sessions with young men, using Engaging Boys and Men in Gender Transformation: The Group Education Manual, to cover topics including gender and power, gender roles, healthy relationships, and violence using role-play and discussion to promote personal reflection. Community mobilization and engagement included a March on International Father’s Day, distribution of monthly newsletters and leaflets, music and drama skits, monthly community workshop meetings, and condom distribution. The intervention was evaluated through a quasi-experimental study that compared three arms: a control group, a community engagement-only group, and a group that received both community engagement and group education. Both intervention groups reported increases in gender-equitable attitudes, which are related to norms, using the GEM Scale, as well as a decline in intimate partner violence, relative to the control group.^1,2

• The Minna Dada(I Have A Sister) campaign was implemented by UZIKWASA, a community-based organization in the Pangani District of Tanzania, starting in 2016. Minna Dada is an integrated intervention that aims to prevent IPV among adolescent boys and girls aged 15-18 by promoting community solidarity. The components of this intervention are community workshops, called Minna Dada camps, and additional training for community leaders at the district level. This message is echoed in existing UZIKWASA programming, a set of integrated activities aiming to increase gender justice and equality and reduce gender-based violence. Components of these activities include dialogue campaigns; mass media campaigns with community theater, film, magazines, and radio; gender-transformative leadership training; and community-wide ‘camps’ addressing gender equality. A qualitative evaluation was conducted after the implementation of the Minna Dada campaign, including results of other UZIKWASA programming. The study found increased awareness of intimate partner violence, including elements such as economic abuse, in particular men who realized that they and their communities were perpetrating it. There was a perceived reduction in gender-based violence, including intimate partner violence, and impact was also perceived in related areas like girls remaining in school, reduction of early marriage and increased support for those who had experienced intimate partner violence. Findings suggested that norms change programs should include components at the community level.³